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DOI: 10.21070/acopen.10.2025.11004
Published: 2025-06-17

Analysis of Internal and External Factors Influencing Teacher Performance


Universitas Negeri Malang
Indonesia
Universitas Negeri Malang
Indonesia
Universitas Negeri Malang
Indonesia

(*) Corresponding Author

Teacher Performance Educational Quality Internal Factors External Influences School Leadership

Abstract

General Background: The quality of education fundamentally hinges on teacher performance, as educators are central to the learning process. Specific Background: Despite widespread acknowledgment of their significance, systemic efforts to enhance teacher effectiveness remain fragmented. Knowledge Gap: There is limited integrative analysis that systematically categorizes the full spectrum of internal and external factors influencing teacher performance. Aims: This study aims to identify and categorize the key determinants that shape teacher performance using descriptive analysis of empirical data. Results: Five primary factors emerged: personal characteristics, systemic structures, team collaboration, leadership, and contextual influences. Emotional stability was the most critical personal trait, while organizational systems and teamwork directly impacted task performance and student outcomes. Leadership supported ethical professionalism, and unaddressed contextual pressures risked performance decline. Novelty: The study’s novelty lies in its multidimensional synthesis of performance drivers, emphasizing the interplay between internal traits and external systems. Implications: Findings advocate for holistic educational policies that concurrently strengthen individual, structural, and contextual supports to sustainably elevate teaching quality.

  Highlights:

  • Emotional stability is the most influential personal trait.

  • School systems and teamwork enhance performance quality.

  • Contextual pressure must be managed to avoid performance decline.
Keywords: Teacher Performance, Educational Quality, Internal Factors, External Influences, School Leadership

Introduction

Teachers have a central role in determining the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning process. The contribution of teachers to students' learning experience can be identified through their performance evaluation. High teacher performance leads to more effective learning, increased student understanding, and better academic achievement. Conversely, low-performing teachers can cause learning difficulties for students and lower their academic outcomes [1]. In addition to impacting academic achievement, good teacher performance also contributes to the formation of students' character and social skills through the internalization of values such as self-confidence, ethics, curiosity, and discipline. Teacher performance and effectiveness are important elements in determining the quality of education. Cravens & Hunter [2] pointed out that teacher effectiveness and performance are two interrelated variables but measured by different metrics. Teacher effectiveness refers to the contribution of teachers to student learning outcomes and is measured using value-added scores (VAS). In contrast, teacher performance is measured through instructional observation scores that reflect the extent to which teachers implement instructional practices in the classroom. A clear understanding of the differences between these two concepts is important for proper evaluation of teacher performance.

The term performance according to Campbell, et.al., [3] in the theory of performance is defined as an activity or action that is carried out by a person not in mere intention, potential, or results in carrying out their work. Performance in the context of institutions/organizations and individuals is defined differently. If in the organizational context performance is defined by the amount of goods or services produced in a certain period, then in the individual context performance is defined by the level of personal efficiency and effectiveness shown to achieve the targets that have been set [4]. In this study, performance refers to individual actions relevant to organizational goals that are under the control of the individual and can be measured based on their level of proficiency. In other words, performance is defined as what an individual intentionally does in performing his or her role in the organization including cognitive, motor, and social-interpersonal behaviors, if these actions contribute to the achievement of work goals.

Teacher performance is an element that is considered quite important in efforts to organize an effective educational process. Research by Unruh [5]confirms that teacher performance shows the effectiveness of their professional performance, namely the extent to which teachers use their resources to have a positive impact on overall educational goals. Therefore, teacher performance is an important focus in education reform because the roles and contributions made by teachers have a direct impact on the achievement of educational goals such as the formation of a positive school climate and the achievement of good student academic results. Teachers are the main contributors to the education transformation movement, which means that teachers are at the forefront of the implementation of quality learning. The more teachers contribute to the success of student learning, the higher the teacher's performance. Research by Özgenel & Mert [6] shows that teacher performance significantly predicts school effectiveness.

An intervention to improve teacher performance through an understanding of the factors that shape teacher performance is important. Factors or elements that influence teacher performance are elements that must be studied first with the aim of maximizing efforts to improve teacher performance. Teacher performance is influenced by five factors including personal factors, system factors, team factors, leadership factors, and contextual factors (7). These five factors are also in line with the study of Debbarma & Momin (8) which specifically states that, principal leadership, work environment conditions, teacher motivation, training and development, and school support have a significant relationship to the success of teacher performance. However, research on the factors that influence teacher performance mostly explains separately or not comprehensively all the factors that influence teacher performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence teacher performance through article analysis of both national and international articles to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the supporting factors in interventions to improve teacher performance.

Methods

This study is qualitative research with an inductive approach. Qualitative research was chosen because the purpose of this research is to understand social phenomena, especially related to factors that affect teacher performance in schools. Apart from examining and understanding the factors that influence performance, this research also explores the influence of these factors on the quality of teacher performance. Instead of starting with a predetermined hypothesis, this research begins with collecting empirical data in the field and then processing and analyzing it to draw conclusions about the patterns that shape teacher performance. These research steps adapt the grounded theory way of thinking. Data collection in this study utilized available documents, such as articles, ministry regulations, books, and other sources relevant to the research objectives. Data collection was conducted through a document analysis technique, utilizing various secondary sources such as journal articles, government regulations, educational policy papers, and academic books. A computer-based search strategy was adopted, using search engines including Google Scholar, Taylor & Francis, Elsevier, and ScienceDirect. The keywords used during the search included: teacher performance, teacher performance and related characteristics, teacher effectiveness, performance of primary school teachers, factors affecting teacher performance, internal and external factors, teacher aptitude, work task motivation, and personality characteristics of effective teachers. To ensure the relevance and quality of the selected literature, only studies published between 2017 and 2025 were included. All selected articles were written in English and involved large sample sizes to support generalizability. Studies retrieved solely through computer-based online searches were considered. Conversely, documents were excluded if they were published before 2017, written in languages other than English, involved small sample sizes, or were inaccessible in full-text format. Studies that focused exclusively on higher education or informal learning environments were also omitted. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the selected documents were subjected to descriptive qualitative analysis. This method allowed the researcher to examine the content systematically and factually, enabling a deeper understanding of the context and underlying meanings of the factors that influence teacher performance as identified in the reviewed literature.

Result and Discussion

The results section provides a description of the demographic data of the 19 articles selected for analysis. The results of this study show that the 19 articles successfully identified factors that influence teacher performance both internally and externally. Table 1. Summarizes key information from each study to provide a more detailed explanation. The information includes the author's name, year of publication, type of country where the study was conducted, methodological approach used, characteristics of the participants involved in the study, as well as the factors shaping teacher performance found in each study.

Factors or elements affecting teacher performance are elements that must be studied first to maximize efforts to improve teacher performance. Regulation of the Director General of Teachers and Education Personnel number 7607/B.B1/Hk.03/2023 [8]concerning Technical Guidelines for Performance Management of Teachers and Principals states that teacher performance is the achievement of work results and teacher work behavior expressed quantitatively according to targets and performance indicators agreed upon with the principal and carried out through a cycle of planning, implementation, observation, evaluation, and follow-up based on the teacher's main duties. According to Long et al. (9) teacher performance is reflected in their ability to effectively convey knowledge, facilitate learning, and create an engaging environment for students' academic and personal growth. Improving teacher performance through identifying the factors that influence it is a significant effort to create a quality learning environment and the best educational process services.

Factors that shape teacher performance are elements around the teacher that can increase or decrease teacher performance. These factors consist of five types namely personal, team, system, leadership, and contextual factors. The five factors whose presence has a significant impact on teacher teaching performance are grouped into two types which include internal factors and external factors. Internal factors consisting of personal factors, team factors, and leadership factors originate from internal individuals and internal organizations. In contrast, system factors and contextual factors are external factors that come from outside the organization or individual whose presence affects the work patterns of teachers in schools. The explanation of the five factors is as follows:

Figure 1.Distribution of factors influencing teacher performance

Author/s, year Reference No. Method Country Participants Factors Contributing
External Internal
Gemmink et al., (2021) (10) Qualitative Netherlands 215 primary school teachers Contextual:Educational accountability andstandardsInclusive educationSchool ImprovementSocial-professional relationshipsSchool`s organizational aspectOrganizational work in classroomPupils’ educational needsIndividual professional developmentProfessional space and autonomy -
Von suchodoletz et al., (2018) (11) Quantitative US America 341 preschool teachers Contextual:Teacher ratings of children'sbehavior in the classroom. -
Shackleton et al., (2019) (12) Multilevel methods United Kingdom 2278 teachers Students’ attitudes toward learningTeacher perceived safetyStudent-teacher ratiosType of school attended -
Kell (2019) (13) Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) US America K–12 teachers - Personal:teachers’ personalities during hiring or placement processes.
Bastian et.al., (2017) (14) Quantitative NorthCarolina 1,790 First-year teachers - Personal:ConscientiousnessSelf-efficacy
Kim et al., (2019) (15) A meta-analysis - 25 studies - Personal:Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Emotionalstability
Darling-Hammond, (2017) (16) Case studies FinlandSingaporeAustraliaUnited StatesCanada - System:Using professional teaching standards.Establishing induction models.Supporting thoughtful professional development.Profession-wide capacity building. -
Meng, et.al., (2024) (17) QuantitativeQuesionere Self-reported China Teachers, who are 19 untill over 43 years old. System:Education PolicySchool culture -
Alexander, et.al., (2017) (18) Macroexploration of systemicconnections - - System:Teacher evaluation policies : student achievement. -
Nweke & Gbarage (2022) (19) Desk study approach River state - - Team:Teacher-students communicationPrincipal-teachers communicationEffective conflict findings
(Okiridu, et.al., 2019) (20) Quantitative River state 87 Business Teachers - Team:StressTeachers Workload
Ayeni & Fakunle (2022) [21] Quantitative Ondo state, Nigeria 33 Principles & 660 Teachers. Team:Teamwork management
Aquino, et.al., (2021) [22] Quantitative: The correlation research Philippines 17 School heads - Leadership:Authentic leadership doesn`t impact teacher`s performance.
Imhangbe et al., (2019) (23) Quantitative: Multiple regression Nigeria 69 principals - Leadership:Democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles.
Imran & Akhtar (2023) [24] Quantitative: exploratory Pakistan 620 primary school teachers - Leadership:Ethical leadership practiced
Misfa & Arif, (2024) [25] Quantitative Indonesia 30 primary school teachers Contextual:Influences exerted by internal dynamics and external circumstances. -
Zheng (2022) [26] Quantitative: exploratory China 200 political teachers. Contextual:Positive Emotional Environment. -
Hagermoser Sanetti et al., (2021) [27] Reviewed articles - 18 articles Contextual:School psychologistsMeditation program -
Elacqua & Marotta, (2020) [28] Longitudinal quantitative design Rio deJaneiro - Contextual:Multiple school jobs -
Table 1.External- Internal Factors Impacting Teacher`S Performance

1. Personal Factor

The performance of teachers is influenced by personal factors or the teachers themselves. Teacher performance not only focuses on student learning outcomes, but a combination of teacher traits and behavior towards students is the main thing that is always considered so that the learning process runs smoothly [29]. Based on Kell's study [13], personal factors can be an essential factor in predicting teacher performance. Five personalities that can predict teacher performance are openness, prudence and responsibility, cooperativeness, creativity, and emotional stability. The results of Bastian et.al. [14] explain that self-confidence, which is a sub-domain of prudence and responsibility, has a significant contribution to the assessment of good teacher performance and high retention rates.

Teachers who are responsible and conscientious are often inclined to exhibit certain positive behaviors and make specific instructional decisions that ultimately contribute to the success of the teaching process. In contrast to previous research, Kim, et.al.'s [15] study explains that it is difficult to specifically describe the elements of teacher personality that have a significant impact in shaping teacher effectiveness. This is because the conceptual approach to teacher personality is unidimensional. Although, the study still states that teacher personality is positively related to teacher effectiveness, which is a combination of student learning outcomes and teacher teaching performance [30].

2. System Factors

The system serves a crucial role in shaping teacher performance by providing the structure that teachers need to carry out their operational tasks. The education system which includes elements such as education policies, curriculum standards, assessment methods, regulations, and other material and non-material resources, has a significant impact on teacher performance in the learning process [16]. Education systems regulated by the central government have a reciprocal or mutually influencing relationship with teacher performance. One part of the education system, education policy, directly affects teacher performance.

This influence can be seen in ethical and effective teacher education programs, the maintenance of a conducive work environment, and the adoption of teacher ethics documents that regulate teacher behavior in teaching and interacting with students [17] [31]. Based on Alexander, et.al. [18] findings, although structures that support teachers' operations have been officially established at the state level, the implementation of each educational institution is not always equally distributed. Some education policies are only implemented in certain areas, not across the board. This inconsistent implementation of the education system causes great challenges in measuring teacher performance levels nationally.

3. Team Factor

Team building in the context of improving the quality of education services is understood as part of the process of organizational change and development. Teachers are the main work team members in educational organizations. The study of Nweke & Gbarage [19] explains that the effective team or group can be seen from the team size, group cohesion, leadership, motivation, and group goals. Teachers who play a role and actively participate in every activity and decision making are believed to be able to increase the sense of unity and cooperation between members. The school team such as teachers and education personnel can implement school decisions and policies which in turn can support the realization of educational goals [32]. School teams such as teachers and education personnel who work in an orderly, directed, and conducive manner and can make a real contribution to organizational goals are important indications of the formation of effective schools [20].

Teamwork has a direct impact on the quality of teacher work and student academic achievement. Teams are a vital factor in determining the level of teacher performance. A school team that can utilize the professional knowledge, skills, and experience of its teachers will be able to choose effective learning resources, approaches, and teaching methods so that the student learning process becomes more qualified. Ayeni & Fakunle's research [21] summarized that solid work teams encourage positive interpersonal relationships, collective responsibility, communication, reflection, and constructive feedback between members. The above elements are understood to be able to improve teacher performance to realize educational goals.

4. Leadership Factor

The leadership of an educational organization is the first agent of change that serves as an example to its members. Their role includes building supportive social relationships, initiating information-sharing activities, participating in mentoring programs and encouraging school progress. In the context of teacher performance, the influential role of school leaders does not have a direct impact. Principal leadership responsibilities that include continuous professional development are crucial when helping teachers adapt to dynamic teaching demands and tasks [22] [33]. The leadership style implemented by the principal determines the significance of the influence of leadership on teacher performance through professional development programs. Based on the results of Imhangbe et al. 's research [23], mentions that a combination of democratic and transformational leadership styles is the right formulation in building teacher work performance in schools. These leadership styles provide opportunities for teachers to be actively involved in decision-making, express aspirations, and contribute to all policies that will or have been set [34].

Teacher engagement subsequently fosters a greater sense of ownership and responsibility for their professional duties. Imhangbe emphasized that effective leadership does not only affect a teacher's task performance. On the other hand, principal leadership contributes positively to the moral and ethical dimensions of teachers in carrying out their professional responsibilities. In addition to the leadership style applied by principals indirectly affecting teacher performance. Leadership ethics through the establishment of a positive and conducive work climate can support the improvement of teacher performance [24]. Principal ethics such as moral responsibility, openness, transparency, trust, and fairness serve as role models for teachers in completing their tasks and responsibilities both in the category of task performance and contextual performance. However, perceptions of leadership ethics are subjective and have a high potential for bias, so ethical leadership by principals must be implemented effectively and consistently.

5. Contextual Factor

Contextual factors can be defined as various situations stemming from external and internal pressures and changes that affect members in completing their professional tasks [25]. A study by Zheng [26] concluded that the high workload and psychological pressure experienced by teachers in schools are major challenges that threaten their performance. External demands such as disappointment from students about teachers' mistakes, high expectations from parents and principals, and demands for promotion from families increase the psychological pressure teachers experience. Therefore, change management and pressures from both the external and internal environment of the school need to be managed effectively so that they do not accumulate and trigger a deterioration in the quality of teachers' work.

Workload spikes experienced by teachers are a contributing factor to the emergence of stress, which directly and thoroughly has a negative impact on teacher performance [27]. Beside the pressures and changes that come from within the school, teacher performance is also influenced by situational factors from the external environment. Dynamic social and economic conditions are vital factors that can significantly impact teacher performance [28]. Teachers who work in more than one school and have longer working hours are one of the demands of the surrounding economic conditions that are constantly changing. As a result of this situation, it is very likely that teacher performance will decrease due to fatigue stemming from instructional load and other job responsibilities outside the classroom.

Conclusion

Teachers' performance reflects their ability to facilitate learning, inspire students, and create a positive learning environment. Positive teacher performance not only impacts students and schools but also the teachers themselves. Regarding the teacher's work environment, namely school is a system that is influenced by many factors, the performance carried out by teachers is also influenced by many things. Internal and external factors can independently or collaborate with each other in terms of influencing teacher performance. The internal factor that comes from the teacher himself, namely emotional stability, is an element that has a significant effect on teacher performance. Other than personal factors, internal factors also come from the organization where teachers work. Team factors and leadership factors are among the internal factors that influence teaching quality. Subsequently, external factors such as system factors and contextual factors are two factors that need to be considered so that these factors can have a positive impact on teacher performance.

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